I
Imagine the enormous
humiliation Rehtaeh Parsons experienced when she was gang-raped by four boys at
15 years of age. An innocent person was violated in the most dehumanizing way
possible. To make matters worse, pictures of the incident were posted online by
the perpetrators after the incident. She had suicidal thoughts while coping
with the memories of what happened. Unfortunately, at age seventeen she hanged
herself and died a few days later when taken off life support. No charges were
filed at the time of the sexual assault but the case has been reopened. [1]
II
While walking to
class Jim, a high school sophomore, inadvertently bumped into Brad, an
eleventh grader in the hallway one morning. Brad was livid and immediately went
after Jim punching him a few times before a group of students broke it up.
Both went to class but Brad shouted that he would find Jim after school to
settle the issue. Brad did not calm down the whole day as he could not wait
to find his perpetrator to get revenge. Jim was nervous the rest of the day
anticipating a serious beating by a big and angry person. Fortunately, the school administration found
out about the altercation and put an end to Brad's plot. They called his parents
because this was not the first time he acted aggressively in school.
Incidents such as
these are not uncommon and raise the question whether such impulsive outbursts can be
limited through parenting and school counseling. The question has to be asked,
too, why not one of the four boys had the wherewithal to halt the assault on Rehtaeh Parsons, and
afterwards showed no remorse, but rather posted images of their despicable
activity online.
Biochemistry and Aggression
"Violence in
our society is a major concern, indeed, a national health problem," says
Craig Ferris, professor of Psychology, Northeastern University. "Understanding
the confluence of events, both environmental and biological, that trigger a
violent act has been the focus of educators, health professionals, and scientists
for decades." [2]
Scientists have
found that the hormone testosterone plays a role in regulating behavior in boys,
particularly aggression. It increases significantly when they reach adolescence
and is associated with lower pitch voice, growth of body hair, increase muscle,
and bone mass.
Furthermore, the
hormone has been shown to have an effect on certain regions of the brain. When
provoked, a sudden rise in testosterone in the blood stream creates a cascade of
events that produce substances that affect impulsivity and self-control, and
consequently the individual's personality. When aggression is noted during
interpersonal encounters it arises from that individual's complex response to
the biochemical interactions on the brain. There are two alternate mechanisms:
1) act impulsively for immediate action or 2) pent up anger with long term deliberation
to carry out an aggressive act. Both scenarios mentioned at the beginning are
likely to have elements of these mechanisms. [3]
The Sociological Perspective behind Male
Behavior
 |
| hbdra.com |
"Boys are
really desperate to understand how to become men." says Geoffrey Canada,
president of the Harlem Children's Zone in Harlem, New York. "We have to
help boys understand that growing into a man is not something that your actions
or your beliefs can prevent from happening. The standards of manhood should not
be defined by street culture but rather by a set of values surrounding family,
self and community."
He adds that "Lots
of boys pick strong messages about who they are and who they want to be from
the media," "The music industry presents overtly sexual messages that
denigrate women and portray them as sex toys. Video games offer violent
messages, and even the sports video games include taunting and teasing. Movies
portray men as tough guys. And there are the subtle advertising messages aimed
at boys, in the liquor ads on billboards and buses. All of these offer images
of masculinity that boys strive to achieve." [5]
Michael Thompson, Ph.D.,
is a clinical psychologist, school consultant and international speaker on the
subjects focusing on the emotional lives of boys, friendships, and social
cruelty in childhood. He states that certain male behaviors may be inborn. "Boys
may be biologically programmed to behave in certain ways that we define as
masculine. For example, boys in all cultures around the world like to wrestle,
and do a lot more of it than girls do. And when boys wrestle and roughhouse,
parents typically say, 'Boys will be boys.' In this way, society expects and has
to pay the consequences for this type of behavior when it is no longer play."
[6]
The media has been
subject to criticism: "The evidence indicates that if, hypothetically,
television technology had never been developed, there would be 10,000 fewer
homicides each year in the United States, 70,000 fewer rapes, and 700,000 fewer
injurious assaults. Violent crime would be half what it is." [7]
"….violence is
not a random, uncontrollable, or inevitable occurrence. There is absolutely no
doubt that higher levels of viewing violence on television are correlated with
increased acceptance of aggressive attitudes and increased aggressive behavior."
[8]
Michael Kimmel,
Professor of Sociology, State University of New York, Stony Brook, specializes
in gender studies and is the founder and editor of the academic journal Men and Masculinities. Kimmel is a
spokesperson of the National Organization
for Men Against Sexism (NOMAS). He places fear and shame at the very center
of the social construction of men's identity. For him, men "fear that
other men will unmask us, emasculate us, reveal to us and the world that we do
not measure up, that we are not real men. Fear makes us ashamed. To avoid
shame, men distance themselves from the feminine and all associations with it,
including mothers, the world of feelings, nurturing, intimacy, and
vulnerability." [9]
Alcohol is one of
the significant ways men manage shame: drinking is a "maladaptive male
solution to the pressure of undischarged shame." [10]
An emotionally
restrictive masculinity permits men to show their feelings only "in
disguised form" and so they become "mostly unrecognized, unexpressed,
and misunderstood by self and others." Men, instead, express their
feelings in indirect ways, often through behavior that is destructive to
themselves or others. [11]
Research Experiments to Examine the Problem
Scientists have long
known that damage to certain regions of the brain, most notably the prefrontal
cortex, can result in violent behavior. More recently, imaging studies have
identified the neural circuits that become activated in the brains of normal,
healthy individuals during moral decision-making.
Using functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scientists observed that the brain regions
compromised in antisocial populations include also the brain regions involved in
moral decision-making. Adrian Raine, Professor of Criminology & Psychiatry
at the University of Pennsylvania, and his colleagues, compared the brain
images of 792 antisocial individuals with 704 control subjects. They found that
antisocial individuals also tend to have overlapping damage in brain structures
involved in making moral judgments, most notably the prefrontal cortex and the
amygdala.
The findings suggest
that such behavior is associated with a hyperactive response in the amygdala,
an area of the brain that processes information regarding threats and fear, and
with a lessening of activity in the frontal lobe, a brain region linked to
decision-making and impulse control.
"Reactively
aggressive adolescents – most commonly boys – frequently misinterpret their
surroundings, feel threatened, and act inappropriately aggressive," says Guido
Frank, professor at the University Of Colorado Department Of Psychiatry. "They
tend to strike back when being teased, blame others when getting into a fight,
and overreact to accidents. Their behavior is emotionally 'hot,' defensive, and
impulsive."
In their most recent
studies, Frank and his colleagues recruited two groups of male adolescents: one
group diagnosed with reactive-affective-defensive-impulsive
[RADI] behavior and the other group without any history of mental illness or
aggression problems. While being scanned by a brain imaging machine, both sets
of teenagers were asked to perform tasks that involved reacting to
age-appropriate, fear-inducing images. The tasks also tested the teenagers'
impulsivity.
The data revealed
that the brains of RADI teenagers exhibit greater activity in the amygdala and
less activity in the frontal lobe in response to the images than those in the
control group. Again we see that either through improper parenting or genetic
propensity, a person does not develop the necessary prefrontal cognition to
perform appropriate social behaviors over the irrational response by the
amygdala to bypass the cortex.
Moreover, Dr. B. J.
Casey from the Weill Medical College of Cornell University, adds that teens are
very quick and accurate in making judgments and decisions on their own and in
situations where they have time to think especially when in the company of
peers. However, when they have to make decisions in the heat of the moment or
in social situations, their decisions are often influenced by external factors
like peers.
Along that line a
study funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), had teen
volunteers play a video driving game, either alone or with friends watching.
What the researchers discovered was that the number of risks teens took in the
driving game more than doubled when their friends were watching as compared to
when the teens played the game alone.
This outcome
indicates that teens may find it more difficult to control impulsive or risky
behaviors when their friends are around, or in situations that are emotionally
charged. Early adolescents,
around 14 years old, took twice as many risks in a driving simulation game when
they were tested with peers than when they were tested alone. Older adolescents'
driving was about 50% riskier in the company of peers. Though their actions
were completely inexcusable, could this explain why all four boys got into the
frenzy to rape Rehtaeh Parsons?
"There are two
main features that seem to distinguish teenagers from adults in their decision
making," adds Laurence Steinberg, a researcher at Temple University in
Philadelphia. "During early adolescence in particular, teenagers are drawn
to the immediate rewards of a potential choice and are less attentive to the
possible risks. Second, teenagers in general are still learning to control
their impulses, to think ahead, and to resist pressure from others." These
skills develop gradually, as a teen's ability to control his or her behavior
gets better throughout adolescence. [12]
Peer Pressure can be a Positive Factor in
Nurturing Quality Behavior
 |
| doctoryum.org |
In this way, peer
influence can lead teens to engage in new activities and it is quite possible
that it results in building strong pathways in the brain. Neural connections
that are weak or seldom used are removed during adolescence through a process called
synaptic pruning, allowing the brain to redirect precious resources toward more
active connections that were frequently used.
This means that
teens have the potential, through their choices and the behaviors they engage
in, to shape their own brain development. Therefore, skill-building
activities—such as those physical, learning, and creative endeavors that teens
are often encouraged to try through positive peer influence—not only provide
stimulating challenges, but can simultaneously build strong pathways in the
brain. [14]
Suggestions for parents
In the book Raising Cain, co-authors Michael
Thompson and Dan Kindlon present the following strategies, designed to help
parents nurture and protect the emotional lives of their boys, to respect their
interests and needs, and help them grow up to be caring, intelligent,
successful men. [6]
· Recognize and accept the high activity level
of boys and give them safe boy places to express it. "Boys need to learn
how to manage their physicality to do no harm, but they need not be shamed for
exuberance."
· Talk to boys in a way that respects their
pride and masculinity.
· Teach boys that emotional courage is courage,
and that courage and empathy are the sources of real strength in life. In life
and art, we need to provide boys models of male heroism that go beyond the
muscular, the self-absorbed, and the simplistically heroic.
· Use discipline to build character and
conscience, not enemies. "If they are unduly shamed, harshly punished, or
encounter excessive adult anger, they will soon react to authority with
resistance rather than with a desire to do better."
Overcoming the genetic influence to be
impulsively aggressive
Avshalom Caspi,
Professor, Psychology and Neuroscience at Duke University, studied a
behavior-related gene that in about 34 percent of study subjects, predisposes
the person toward high levels of impulsive aggressiveness. Young men with this
gene version had higher levels of conduct disorder, a greater disposition
toward violence, and a higher incidence of antisocial personality disorder. To
show that behavior is not rigidly determined by your genetic program, his team noted
that these convincing results appeared only among young men who had been
severely maltreated as children but were productive, non-aggressive citizens
when brought up in loving environment. [13]
Conclusion
It is speculated by
neurobiologists and psychologists that the hyperactive response by the amygdala
that bypasses the prefrontal cortex and leads to disruptive and aggressive behavior
is likely due to improper socialization during the formative years. Proper
socialization enables a child to encounter a large host of stimuli without
becoming angry or sexually abusive. The amygdala is an area of the brain that
processes information regarding threats and fear.
Proper emotional
development enhances frontal lobe conditioning that quiets the amygdala, and
allows the individual to cope with a multitude of situations as they arise. This
is impulse control. It means that a boy will understand that an accidental
collision in a hallway is not meant to cause humiliation and does not require a
response other than perhaps "excuse me."
It also means that this
conditioned frontal cortex tells the individual that an imminent [testosterone-led]
passion that could be a forceful sexual encounter should not be pursued. Why? He
has a sense of empathy for the victim and/or is in fear of the consequential punishment.
He is likely, also, to thwart his peer group from carrying out such a morally
reprehensible act.
References
[1] Gallman, S., Gast, P., 2 face charges in case of
Canadian girl who hanged self after alleged rape, Cable News Network. Turner
Broadcasting System, Inc., August 11, 2013
[2] Brain Chemicals Involved In Aggression Identified: May
Lead To New Treatments, sciencedaily.com, November 7, 2007
Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071106122309.htm
Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071106122309.htm
[3] Nyby, J. Reflexive testosterone release: A model system for studying the nongenomic effects of testosterone upon male behavior. Frontiers of Neuroendocrinology, 2008, 29,
199-210.
[4] 'Growing Up Masculine'
Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/parents/raisingboys/masculinity02.html
[5] Geoffrey Canada, Fist Stick Knife Gun, a Personal History of Violence in America. President and CEO, Harlem Children's Zone, Beacon Press; Revised edition (September 28, 2010)
[7] Centerwall, B., "Television and Violent Crime", The Public Interest, 1993
[9] Kimmel MS. Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame, and silence in the construction of gender identity. In: Brod H, Kaufman M, eds.
Theorizing Masculinities. Newbury Park, CA: Sage; 1994.
[10] Krugman S. Male development and the transformation of shame. In: Levant RF, Pollack WS, eds. A New Psychology of Men. New York:
Basic; 1995.
[11] Lynch J, Kilmartin C. The Pain Behind the Mask:
Overcoming Masculine Depression. New York: Haworth; 1999
[12] Chein, J., Albert, D., O'Brien, L., Uckert, K., and
Steinberg, L., Peers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain's reward circuitry, Dev Sci. 2011 Mar; 14(2): F1–F10.
[13] Caspi, A., et al. "Role of Genotype in the Cycle of Violence in Maltreated Children." Science 297 (2002): 851-854.
[14] Peer Pressure: It's Influence on Teens and Decision Making, Scholastic.com, 2008
[14] Peer Pressure: It's Influence on Teens and Decision Making, Scholastic.com, 2008
