As the
previous section indicated both animal and human studies strongly suggest that
free play, rough-and-tumble, and exploration in children is important for both
emotional and cognitive development. Juvenile play correlates with the
production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor BDNF, a substance that
associated with neural development and the increase of dendrites on main nerve
cells, or axons.
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| understandingrelationships.com |
According
to Frances Carlson "social roles practiced and learned in rough-and-tumble
play provide children with the social knowledge needed for future
relationships." [1] That said, what has been the trend in play advocacy in
the United States? Are children playing more? Are there societal consequences
related to the amount of play time in a child's life?
Howard
Chudacoff in his book Children at Play:
An American History, points out that opportunities for free play have
diminished since the 1950s. For one, the move to suburbs reduced the acres of
woods and fields along with a substantial increase in vehicles on the new
roads, thus lessening the space that children would roam freely. Add to that
the reduced number of births per family that lessens the number of playmates.
The trend
of mothers becoming part of the work force along with the keen awareness of
child abductions has led to a consequential increase in supervision and
parent-directed play. [2] The actual incidents of these child abductions has
decreased in recent years but more extensive and graphic media coverage has
worsened the fear in parents. [3][4][5]
In one
study 830 mothers from rural and urban areas of the United States were surveyed
for outdoor activity by their children. 85% responded that their children play
less often outdoors than they did when they were children. [6]
Okay then, how about schools?
Do
schools recognize the value of explorative play in the emotional development of
children? Many educators do and maintain a play and social atmosphere in the
preschool and kindergarten classrooms, but the educational community is
concerned, nevertheless, about standardized test scores that are published and
scrutinized by parents and legislators. School boards and administrators have
taken measures consequently to provide more instructional time to help students
learn more material. Free play does not stack up to the public awareness of
math and language scores with the result being reduced recess time and/or the
expansion of the school day. Many feel that creating a learning atmosphere as
early as possible will academically benefit the child in the long run.
The fact
of the matter is that there has been a shift in how schools and families
prioritize time for children. Sociologist Sandra Hofferth looked at time spent
weekly on various activities in for children 3 to 12 years old. She found
· 18%
more time in school
· 145%
more time doing schoolwork at home
· 19%
less time watching television
· 25%
less time playing (both indoor and outdoor) in 1997 than they did in 1981. [7]
The consequences of reducing
free play time.
Compared
to animal investigations cited in the previous section, have measures of
aggression and sociability in humans changed as a result of less free play,
rough-and-tumble, and exploration?
One such
data gathering instrument that might shed light on this issue is the Narcissistic
Personality Inventory (NPI) which was administered and assessed in normative
college groups. Narcissism is defined as excessive selfishness, with a
grandiose view of one's own talents and a craving for admiration. It is
accompanied by the inability to form two-way relationships, or to feel empathy
for others. The questionnaire, called
the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, has been administered since the late 1970s.
The trend
in recent decades has revealed a significant increase in narcissism and a decline
in empathy. Along with overrating their own abilities, narcissistic individuals
often lash out in response to criticism. Furthermore, they commit white-collar
crimes more frequently than the general population. It appears then that our
nation is cultivating people that are more engaged in bullying (cyber, verbal,
or physical) and less likely to provide support for other individuals. [8][9]
Coupled
with Hofferth's data is psychologist Cassandra Newsom's analysis of fourteen to
sixteen year old responses to questions from 1948 to 1989 shows dramatic
changes in personality in the designated areas. (from Gray p. 15) [10][11]
1948 1989
I wake up
fresh and rested most mornings 74.6% 31.3%
I work
under a great deal of tension 16.2% 41.6%
Life is a
strain for me much of the time 9.5% 35.0%
I have
certainly had more than my share of things to worry about 22.6% 55.2%
I am
afraid of losing my mind 4.1% 23.4%
Add to
that the suicide rate since 1950: It has gone up four times in the United
States for children under fifteen years of age, with it doubling for the
fifteen to twenty-four year age group! [12]
Is it
safe to conclude that an increase in narcissistic behavior correlates with less
free play, exploration, and rough-and-tumble opportunities in children? Peter
Gray would likely say yes. The bottom line in his opinion is that (p.18): "In
social play children learn how to negotiate with others, and how to modulate
and overcome anger that can arise from conflicts. It is also the primary means
by which children practice and acquire the physical and intellectual skills
that are essential for success in the culture in which they are growing."
[11]
Here are
specific crime rates in the United States through the years from the Federal Bureau
of Investigation:
Type
|
Violent
crime
|
Murder
|
Rape
|
||||||
Year
|
1972
|
1992
|
2012
|
1972
|
1992
|
2012
|
1972
|
1992
|
2012
|
Per
100,000
|
401
|
758
|
387
|
8.6
|
9.3
|
4.7
|
22.5
|
42.8
|
26.9
|
Instead of a single, dominant cause, our research points to
a vast web of factors, often complex, often interacting, and some unexpected.
Of the theories we examined, we found the following factors had some effect on
bringing down crime: a growth in income (5 to 10 percent), changes in alcohol
consumption (5 to 10 percent), the aging population (0 to 5 percent), and
decreased unemployment (0 to 3 percent). Policing also played a role, with
increased numbers of police in the 1990s reducing crime (0 to 10 percent) and
the introduction of CompStat having an even larger effect (5 to 15 percent).
But none is solely, or even largely, responsible for the
crime drop. Unfortunately, we could not fully test a few theories, as the data
did not exist at the detailed level we needed for our analysis. For those, we
analyzed past research, finding that inflation and consumer confidence
(individuals’ belief about the strength of the economy) probably had some
effect on crime. The legalization of abortion and unleading of gasoline may
also have played some role.
Are there cultural distinctions
in the areas of free play, exploration, and rough-and-tumble pursuits?
Led by
Jane Fajans, professor of Anthropology at Cornell University one such groups
was studied extensively, the Baining people on the island of Papua New Guinea.
The Baining are not hunter gatherers, but small-scale agriculturalists, who
subsist on their gardens and the few animals they raise. Here is what she
documents:
…They
regard children's play as "splashing in the mud," an activity of
pigs, not appropriate for humans. They do not allow infants to crawl and
explore on their own. …When one tries to do so an adult picks it up and
restrains it. Beyond infancy, children
are encouraged or coerced to spend their days working and are often
punished—sometimes by such harsh means as shoving the child's hand into the fire—for
playing.
…They did
not tell stories, rarely gossiped, and exhibited little curiosity or
enthusiasm.
…Work, to
them, is effort expended to overcome or resist the natural. To behave naturally
is to them tantamount to behaving as an animal.
…The
Baining also derogate sexual intercourse, because it is natural, although they
apparently engage in enough of it to keep their population going. They consider
adoption to be the ideal form of parenting, because to raise someone else's
child is less natural than to raise one's own" [13]
That
said, could you live this pleasure-less, highly ascetic middle age monastery
life style? A person exhibiting Baining personalities would be considered
abnormal and recommended for counselling.
All work and no play makes Jack
a dull boy
Denying
the very drives that allow children to seek exploration and free play seemingly
has a serious consequence on their emerging personalities. For a child there is
pleasure when they explore and play, and the human brain is genetically
programmed to derive pleasure. Cultural restraints on behavior is proper to
live a safe life in a community, yes, but the Baining have taken it to an
extreme that none of us could tolerate in our Western lifestyle.
All the
research and anecdotal evidence suggest that exploration, play, and rough-and-tumble
experiences are necessary for anger management and impulse control in
adulthood. It would seem then that brain
development is genetically managed by cues from the environment, including
playful pursuits, with a nervous system growth that encompasses behavior and
cognition.
Analogous
to the rat studies, brain-derived neurotrophic factor BDNF likely increases
when these play scenarios occur in humans. BDNF is associated with the entirety
of neural development, including the vast range of intellectual skills that
humans possess. It sets off a complex genetically-geared neural development
that targets a number of behavior genes. Among them, those that lead to anger
management and moral wisdom as a child develops, including the rituals of
physicality and talk.
The
Hofferth and Newsom studies cited above have revealed a trend toward narcissism
in our society and these appear to correlate with demographics related to play
space, parental attitudes about safety, and school scheduling. Our society should
consider the negative consequences because as Peter Gray says: "In social
play children learn how to negotiate with others, and how to modulate and
overcome anger that can arise from conflicts." [11]
References
[1]
Carlson, Frances. "Rough-and-tumble play 101." ChildCareExchange.com.
Retrieved
from <http://www.ccie.com/library/5018870.pdf > 10 Nov. 2010.
[2]
Howard Chudacoff, Children at Play: An American History, New York: New York
University Press, 2007
[3]
Family Kids and Youth/Research Now Oct-Nov 2009, International summary report
December 2009
[4]
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H.A., Ormrod, R.K., & Hamby, S.L. (2010). Trends in
childhood violence and abuse exposure: Evidence from two national surveys.
Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164(3): 238-242. (CV196)
[5]
Jonathon O'Brien, Jenny Smith, Childhood Transformed? Risk Perceptions and the
Decline of Free Play, British Journal of Occupational Therapy March 2002 vol.
65 no. 3 123-128
[6]
Clements, R., An Investigation of the Status of Outdoor Play, Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood,
Volume 5, Number 1, 2004
[7]
Hofferth, S., Sandberg, J., Changes in American children's time, International
Journal of Time Use Research, 2009, Vol. 6, No. 1, 26-47, p.19
[8]
Konrath SH1, O'Brien EH, Hsing C. Changes in dispositional empathy in American
college students over time: a meta-analysis, Pers Soc Psychol Rev. 2011
May;15(2):180-98. Epub 2010 Aug 5.
[9]
Thomaes S1, Bushman BJ, Orobio de Castro B, Stegge H., What makes narcissists
bloom? A framework for research on the etiology and development of narcissism.
Dev Psychopathol. 2009 Fall; 21(4):1233-47.
[10]
Cassandra Rutledge Newsom , Robert P. Archer , Susan Trumbetta & Irving,
Changes in Adolescent Response Patterns on the MMPI/ MMPI-A Across Four
Decades, Journal of Personality Assessment
I. Gottesman Published online: 10 Jun 2010.
[11]
Gray, P., Free to Learn: why unleashing the instinct to play will make our
children happier, more self-reliant, and better students for life, New York:
Basic Books, 2013
[12]
Center for Disease Control and Prevention
[13]
Fajans, J., They Make Themselves: Work and Play among the Baining of Papua New
Guinea, University Of Chicago Press; 1997
